HISTORY OF CEMENT

The word “cement” has been derived from the Latin word, “caementum” which means chipped stone crumb. This word later on was used to mean “binder”. Although the first reinforced concrete structure was built in 1852, the use of binding agents goes further back probably to lime and gypsum use after controlled use of fire by mankind. Lime has been the first material to be used as binder. Intense speculations are ongoing on when the binding feature of lime was initially discovered. Yet it would not be irrational to assert that this happened during the early stages of the history of civilization. Most probably limes formed due to fires built in limestone caves for heating or roasting food, had transformed to slaked lime due to contact with rainwater or humidity, and human beings coincidentally became aware of the binding effect of the powder formed, once it dried. The first applications of slaked lime can be seen in the drawings made on the cave walls. Later on it was employed again on cave walls for making interior and exterior decoration and plastering.

Evidence has been uncovered in different locations of ancient Egypt, Crete and Mesopotamia demonstrating that lime was used as a building material. Ancient Greeks and Romans have used lime as a hydraulic binder. Roman architect Vitruvius (B.C. 70-B.C. 25) had written about the hydraulic features of puzzolana and lime mixtures in his 10-Volumes book, namely, “On Architecture” and had even recommended a mixture ratio for mortar to be used in buildings to be put up nearby rivers and seashore; two parts puzzolana (pulvis Puteolanus) is to be mixed with one part limestone. Research results have confirmed that in Asia Minor, the plaster used in Çatalhöyük dwellings is approximately 7000 years old.

In ancient times, many binders that represent the civilization level of the associated period had been used in Egyptian pyramids, the Great Wall of China and fortresses built at different centuries. Then, about 2000 years before our day, the Romans had started using a hydraulic binder, which resembles the features of today’s cement. They obtained this binder by blending slaked lime with volcanic ashes and later on with baked brick powder. Whereas ancient Greeks were making mortar by blending volcanic tuff they obtained from Island of Santorini with lime, or used hydraulic lime they obtained from limestone that contained clay. Although ancient Greeks and Romans were aware of the hydraulic characteristic of puzzolana and lime mixtures and made use of these materials, they could not arrive at the knowledge to explain how lime is obtained or what was going on chemically during puzzolanic reactions. For instance, Pliny (i.e. Roman scientist Gaius Plinius) had written that it is not comprehensible “why lime, which is obtained through burning of stone by fire, burns once more upon contact with water?” As regards the quality and usage of binders, no significant improvement was attained until 18th Century. John Smeaton, who was assigned to rebuild the Eddystone Lighthouse in 1756, is known to be the first one to realize the chemical properties of lime. The subsequent development was the invention of the binder called the “Roman Cement", by Joseph Parker.

In 1824, a mason named Joseph Aspdin in Leeds obtained a binding agent by baking a mixture of fine particles of clay and limestone and then grinding the baked mixture. Joseph Aspdin, noticing that when water and sand was added into this material, the product resembled the building stones brought in from Portland Island after hardening, received a patent for his binder on 21.10.1824, under the name “Portland Cement”. Although the binder improved extensively in the following years, the “Portland” name was maintained as is. Since the binder invented by Joseph Aspdin was not baked at adequately high temperatures, it never reached the properties of today’s Portland cement. Anyhow it has been confirmed that Joseph Aspdin’s binder was used in the construction of the "Wakefield Arms" building, which is still intact nearby the Kirkgate train station in Britain.

The first cement plant was founded in Britain in year 1848.
The first German Cement Standard was established in 1860. Founding of American Concrete Institute (ACI) and the establishment of the US Directives.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. A.M. Neville, Properties of Concrete - Longman Scientific and Technical, NewYork 4th Edition, 1998
2. A.M. Neville and JJ.Brooks, Concrete Technology - Longman Scientific and Technical, NewYork, 1987
3. F.Kocataskin, Betonun Dünü Bugünü Yarını - 2. Ulusal Beton Kongresi
4. Betonu Olusturan Malzemeler ÇİMENTOLAR - Prof. Dr. Turhan Y. Erdogan T.H.B.B.
5. Concrete Through the Ages BCA, British Cement Association
6. Singer C.A., History of Technology, C.I, Oxford, 1977
7. Mindess, S and Young J F, Concretes 10 Prentice Hall Inc., 1981
8. Klemm, AV “Cementitous Materials: Historical Notes” Materials Science of Concrete (Ed. J. Skalny) C I s 1-26 The American Ceramic Society, 1989